"AS I SEE
IT"
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Volume 5, Number 2, February 2002
["As I See It" is a
monthly electronic magazine compiled and edited by Doug Kutilek. Its purpose is
to address important issues of the day and to draw attention to worthwhile
Christian and other literature in order to aid believers in Jesus Christ,
especially pastors, missionaries and Bible college and seminary students to more
effectively study and teach the Word of God. The editor's perspective is that of
an independent Baptist of fundamentalist theological persuasion.
AISI is sent free to all who request it by writing to the editor at:
DKUTILEK@juno.com. You can be removed from the mailing list at the same address.
All articles are by the editor (unless otherwise noted) and are copyrighted but
may be reproduced for distribution, provided the following conditions are met:
1. articles must be reproduced in unedited, unabridged form; 2. the writer must
be properly credited; and, 3. such reproduction must be for free distribution
only. Permission to distribute in any other form must be secured in writing
beforehand. Permission for reproduction in Christian print periodicals will
generally be given.]
SHAKESPEARE AND THE KJV?
One of the wonders of the internet
is how easily it facilitates the dissemination of utterly false and fictitious,
or at best highly dubious, information. Whole books have been written about such
"urban legends" (you know--the alligators reportedly in the sewers of
New York City, and the supposedly "Satanic" nature of the venerable
Proctor & Gamble "man in the moon" logo).
Well, not to be out-done by the "children of this world," Christians
also have their "urban legends." One of these that has been
circulating in cyber-space involves the great British playwright William
Shakespeare and the famous King James Version of the Bible. The story goes as
follows:
The KJV translators reportedly (so this legend has it) consulted Shakespeare, a
renowned master of English style, as they were doing their translation work, and
to acknowledge surreptitiously, not openly, his part in the work (it would have
been scandalous to have a mere actor and author of stage plays participating in
the important and sacred work of Bible translation), they translated--or perhaps
allowed him to translate (depending on which version of the legend is being
told), his complete ignorance of Hebrew notwithstanding--a part of Psalm 46 in a
particular way. If one turns to that Psalm, he will discover that the 46th word
from the beginning of the Psalm (ignoring the title, which does in fact form a
part of the inspired text) is the word "shake." And if one counts
words from the end of the Psalm, the 46th word from the end (ignoring the final
word of the Psalm, the Hebrew word selah--again a part of the inspired text) is
the word "speare." So, the 46th word from the beginning and the 46th
word from the end of the 46th Psalm are "shake" and "speare."
An apparently remarkable coincidence, to be sure. And the unstated implication
is that this somehow adds to the prestige, dignity and authority of the KJV over
all other English Bible versions.
But against the theory is the apparent complete absence of any contemporary
positive evidence associating the bard of Stratford-on-Avon with the KJV
translation committee and its work. Certainly the lengthy account of Shakespeare
in the authoritative Dictionary of National Biography, authored by the editor of
the work, Sir Sydney Lee, betrays no such knowledge. Nor can I find any
reference to the same in several other works on Shakespeare consulted, nor
indeed in various standard histories of the English Bible. This is not to say
that it is thereby absolutely disproved, though the happenings in Shakespeare's
life in the period 1604 to 1611 (when the KJV was in preparation) are fairly
well-known to history, and any part the most famous of English authors might
have had in the production of the most famous of English Bible translations
could scarcely have gone unnoticed and unreported.
The novelty of the coincidence of the "46s" and
"Shakespeare" is not quite so remarkable as it might seem at first
blush. The Geneva Bible of 1560 (published 4 years before Shakespeare's birth
and therefore certainly uninfluenced by him in any way--indeed, he was
influenced by it) was the Bible most commonly used in the English-speaking world
during the far greater part of Shakespeare's active writing career (he died in
1616, having virtually retired some years earlier; all but 3 of his many plays
and the whole of his poetry being commonly ascribed to the years before 1611).
It was also the English Bible version most closely followed by the KJV
translators in their revision work.
An examination of the Geneva version of Psalm 46 reveals that both words
"shake" and "speare" occur in the relevant verses (3 and 9),
as in the KJV, though with a slightly different word count. "Shake" is
the 48th, rather than 46th, word from the beginning of the Psalm (ignoring the
title) and "speare" is the 44th word from the end of the Psalm (or
45th, depending on whether "selah" is excluded from or included in the
count). It seems quite probable that the KJV picked up its use of
"shake" and "speare" in the 3rd and 9th verses respectively
from the prior Geneva Bible (the precise wording of Psalm 46 in the Geneva and
the KJV is usually identical, with a relative few differences). Further it is
entirely within reason that by merest accident these words ended up 46th from
the beginning and end of the Psalm (ignoring the problem counting "selah"
causes for the hypothesis).
Since the "official" basis for the KJV revision was the Bishops' Bible
of 1568, a check of the wording and word counts in that version of Psalm 46
would be of interest for comparative purposes, but unfortunately I have no
access to it, and must remain in the dark for now as to its precise wording.
If it could actually be established with certainty, or with at least a high
degree of probability that the Shakespeare really was "honored" by the
translators in the KJV of Psalm 46 in the manner suggested, whether or not he
had any part whatsoever in the actual production of that translation, it would
make for an interesting footnote. However, until such proof is forthcoming, it
is best to leave this with the other "urban legends" of our time.
---Doug Kutilek
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WISE COUNSEL FROM SPURGEON:
THE ENDURING POWER OF THE PURE GOSPEL TO DRAW MEN TO CHRIST
"Are you afraid that preaching
the gospel will not win souls? Are you despondent as to success in God's way? Is
this why you pine for clever oratory? Is this why you must have music, and
architecture, and flowers and millinery? After all, is it by might and power,
and not by the Spirit of God? It is even so in the opinion of many."
"Brethren beloved, there are many things which I might allow to other
worshippers which I have denied myself in conducting the worship of this
congregation. I have long worked out before your very eyes the experiment of the
unaided attractiveness of the gospel of Jesus. Our service is severely plain. No
man ever comes hither to gratify his eye with art, or his ear with music. I have
set before you, these many years, nothing but Christ crucified, and the
simplicity of the gospel; yet where will you find such a crowd as this gathered
together this morning? Where will you find such a multitude as this meeting
Sabbath after Sabbath, for five-and-thirty years? I have shown you nothing but
the cross, the cross without flowers of oratory, the cross without diamonds of
ecclesiastical rank, the cross without the buttress of boastful science. It is
abundantly sufficient to attract men first to itself, and afterwards to eternal
life!"
"In this house we have proved successfully, these many years, this great
truth, that the gospel plainly preached will gain an audience, convert sinners,
and build up and sustain a church. We beseech the people of God to mark that
there is no need to try doubtful expedients and questionable methods. God will
save by the gospel still: only let it be the gospel in its purity. This grand
old sword will cleave a man's chine [i.e., spine], and split a rock in
halves."
"How is it that it does so little of its old conquering work? I will tell
you. Do you see the scabbard of artistic work, so wonderfully elaborated? Full
many keep the sword in this scabbard, and therefore its edge never gets to its
work. Pull off that scabbard. Fling that fine sheath to Hades, and then see how,
in the Lord's hands, that glorious two-handed sword will mow down fields of men
as mowers level the grass with their scythes."
"There is no need to go down to Egypt for help. To invite the devil to help
Christ is shameful. Please God, we shall see prosperity yet, when the church of
God is resolved never to seek it except in God's own way."
Charles Haddon Spurgeon (1834-1892)
Metropolitan Tabernacle Pulpit, 1888, vol. 34, p. 563
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A WORD ABOUT BIBLE SOCIETIES-FYI
No true Christian, I feel confident,
could voice the least objection to the professed noble purpose of the many and
varied "Bible societies" which are found at home and abroad. That
purpose is to propagate and distribute the Bible far and wide, in all languages
and to all peoples in an inexpensive and therefore affordable form. There is no
greater or more important work in this world than to widely, yes universally,
distribute the written Word of God to people in their own native language via
reliable and trustworthy translations.
I myself was saved at 17 because someone put an English New Testament in my
hands at age 11. I have heard that 60% of the converts to Christianity in
Eastern Europe since the fall of the Iron Curtain have been evangelized by
reading the Bible for themselves. As a result of what I have experienced and
witnessed, I make it a point to regularly ask missionaries or national pastors
if they have a specific need for printed Scriptures in their work, and if such
exists, I bring it to the attention of our church leaders so that this need can
be immediately met. I have also lugged or shipped Scriptures to Eastern Europe,
or taken sizeable financial contributions there from believers in the States to
purchase locally-available Bibles for free distribution. The best thing we can
do for the souls of men is to flood the world with the printed Word of God. Let
us get the Bible into the hands of people.
That being said, let me say a bit about Bible societies. The Bible society
movement arose at the same time, and indeed for the same purpose, as the modern
foreign missions movement, at the juncture of the 18th and 19th centuries.
William Carey had gone to India, and begun the arduous work of translating the
Bible from the inspired Greek and Hebrew texts into the many languages of India.
And this mere plodding cobbler by trade, by dint of unflagging devotion and
dedication to his God-given task of taking the Gospel message to India,
produced, with the assistance of others, translations of all or part of the
Bible into more than 40 languages, and was widely-recognized as the world's
greatest living linguist (for an excellent account of Carey's life and labors,
see William Carey by Samuel Pearce Carey, reviewed in AISI 1:10).
Naturally one pressing need in the Bible translation enterprise was financial
support to cover the cost of type-setting and actual printing of the new mission
field translations as they were completed. To meet this need, Bible societies
were organized in England, America, and later on Continental Europe. The British
and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS) was founded in 1804 (there were other and
earlier though much smaller and less well-known societies in Great Britain
organized for the purpose of wider distribution of the Scriptures, especially
among the poor; see Schaff-Herzog reference below for the particulars). From the
first, it was an inter-denominational body of Christians united in the goal of
promoting and supporting the distribution of the printed Scriptures in the
widest possible manner. John Hughes, a Baptist minister, was chosen as a
secretary of the society. The BFBS met a pressing need for Bibles, first in
Great Britain and Ireland, and then focused its attention on Continental Europe
(ravaged by the Napoleonic wars). The influence, example and work of the BFBS
led to the founding of numerous local and national Bible societies, auxiliaries
and branches throughout Europe, and also in America and beyond.
The original harmony of purpose in the BFBS became strained and broken within a
couple of decades over several controversies: should the Apocrypha be printed
with the Bible (the Society originally said "no"). Should Unitarians
be allowed to join the Bible Society and participate in policy-making decisions?
(the Society said "yes"). Should the Society fund mission translations
(like Carey's) that render the Greek word baptizo by a word meaning
"immerse," or should they insist that the word simply be transferred
into the language of the translation, as was done in the standard English
Bibles? (the Society said "transfer; do not translate").
These controversies led to the founding of the several alternative Bible
societies. The Trinitarian Bible Society was founded in 1831 in England in
reaction to the latitudinarian policies of the BFBS. The Bible Translation
Society was organized in 1843 by Baptists after the BFBS refused to continue to
fund "immerse" versions in India and on other mission fields.
The BFBS is no longer so much "interdenominational" as it is
ecumenical--true of virtually all the component members of the United Bible
Societies (described below).
The American Bible Society (ABS) was formed in 1816 out of numerous local Bible
societies in the U.S., and was organized for the same purposes as the BFBS. And
like the BFBS, a controversy soon arose over support of mission field versions
(in this case Judson's Burmese version) which translated rather than
transferring baptizo. The ABS voted in 1836 to not fund any such 'sectarian'
versions. Of course, not translating a Greek work whose meaning was not in
doubt--Greek scholars of all denominations, including the major Protestant
denominations which sprinkled or poured as the mode of baptism, unanimously
acknowledged that it meant "immerse," and that immersion was uniformly
the practice of Christians in the earliest centuries--could well be labeled
'sectarian' because transferring served to conceal the fact that those who
practiced sprinkling and pouring were not in harmony with biblical teaching.
Many of the Baptists (and not a few others) in the ABS, who had heavily
supported the ABS with their money, energy and time, thought it not right to
refuse funds to Baptist missionaries for Bible publication. Therefore, in good
historic Baptist practice, they withdrew and formed a new Bible society more in
harmony with their perspective. In 1837, the American and Foreign Bible Society
(AFBS) was organized, with the expressed purpose of publishing the best
available translation in foreign languages, with particular preference for those
which translated as far as possible all the words in the original languages,
rather than transferring some. They also agreed to circulate the KJV in the
English-speaking world, for the time being.
Within the AFBS, some logically and reasonably proposed that if it was right to
circulate the best possible version in foreign languages, consistency demanded
that this policy also be extended to include the English Bibles distributed by
the society. For this reason, many insisted that a revision of the KJV should be
made to remove archaic language, infelicitous expressions, and to correct plain
and obvious errors in translation, so that believers in America and England
could have as accurate a version as Carey, Judson, and others were providing for
believers on the mission field.
And once again in good (or bad) Baptist fashion, this led to a parting of the
ways. The proposal to revise the KJV was rejected, and as a result many favoring
revision withdrew from the AFBS and formed, in 1850, the American Bible Union
(ABU). The proposed revision of the NT was complete by 1865, and was consulted
by the English translators of the English Revised Version of 1881. In the
mid-1880s, these two Bible societies, the AFBS and the ABU, re-joined, and
merged into the American Baptist Publication Society (later renamed as Judson
Press), and officially decided to distribute the KJV, the ABU revision, and the
newly-completed English Revised Version. Baptists thereby became the first
ecclesiastical group to officially sanction the use of the ERV. (See Armitage
and Kutilek references below for the history of the AFBS and ABU).
In England, the controversy over the admission of non-Trinitarians into the BFBS
led to the departure of a group which found this circumstance unacceptable. They
therefore formed a new organization in 1831, the Trinitarian Bible Society
(TBS). Always much smaller than the BFBS, the TBS almost failed until E. W.
Bullinger became secretary of the organization in 1867, a post he held for
nearly a half century (see our review of a recent biography of Bullinger in AISI
4:6).
Under Bullinger (who had rescued the TBS from certain demise), the TBS revived
and expanded its work substantially. During Bullinger's tenure, Bible versions
in various languages were sponsored and published, including a number that were
based on the so-called "critical" or Alexandrian Greek text-type. This
fact is of note, inasmuch as the TBS, which still exists today, has since
reputed the views of Bullinger regarding Greek texts and has become one of the
major promoters of the textus receptus Greek text, to the exclusion of all
others, even the majority text, a fact which divided the TBS in recent years.
The TBS has reprinted in the last couple of decades a 19th century Greek NT,
originally compiled by F. H. A. Scrivener, which was based on Stephanus' 1550
edition, but was systematically revised by Scrivener to conform to the KJV (as
far as Greek NT editions actually in existence in 1611 would allow; a number of
reading in the TBS Greek NT still do not conform to the KJV). Though passed off
as a textus receptus edition, it in reality does not conform in all its details
to any of the historic Greek NT editions of the 16th and 17th centuries, and is
in effect, a separate edition.
This penchant for passing off a "doctored" edition of the Greek NT as
though it were something it actually isn't, has passed into the TBS' practice of
revising historic Bible versions. For example, the TBS has issued revised
editions of the Reina-Valera Spanish Bible of 1602, and of the Louis Segond
French version of the 19th century (and likely other versions--these
specifically have come into my hands). In both cases, these versions have been
systematically revised to make them conform to the KJV, though this fact is
nowhere stated on the title page of these editions or in the preface. Now, I
have no objection to the TBS making and issuing revisions of these or any other
Bible translation. That has long been their practice and is certainly within
their rights. But I do object to them passing off a Spanish Bible labeled as a
"Reina-Valera 1602" when what they have published is a revision of
that version. This borders perilously close to deception, in my opinion.
Returning to the British and Foreign Bible Society and the American Bible
Society, it must be noted that in the 20th century, these two--the BFBS and the
ABS--become progressively more ecumenical and more theologically liberal.
Co-ordination of efforts by the BFBS and the ABS was begun to prevent
duplication in various parts of the world, leading to a formal agreement to that
end in 1932. A wider net of co-operation was cast when the United Bible
Societies was organized in 1946, involving the BFBS, ABS, the National Bible
Society of Scotland, the Netherlands Bible Society and many others, originally
some 24 societies, but now numbering over 70. Anyone professing Christianity in
any form is welcomed, and liberals, modernists, Roman Catholics and Orthodox
pre-dominate in all the major components of the UBS, and I would suspect in all
the small ones as well.
For example, in Serbia, the Bible society there, which I have personally
visited, is a very small concern operating out of a two-room,
back-of-the-building second floor office in downtown Beograde, with a small
amount of warehouse space rented a number of kilometers away. It is under the
control of the Serbian Orthodox Church, which, typical of the Orthodox Churches
and the Roman Catholic Church, is not "zealous" for Bible
distribution, to put it mildly. In nearby Macedonia, the Bible society is a
co-operative concern of Orthodox, Catholic, and ecumenical Protestants.
The theological drift and latitudinarianism of recent days is clearly evident in
the works published by the UBS, ABS, BFBS, et al. The ABS has been the chief
sponsor or distributor of numerous modernist/liberal translations: the Good News
Bible/Today's English Version of the 1960s and 1970s was the work of ABS
employee (and apostate "Baptist") Robert Bratcher. The TEV being now
largely passe, the dumbed-down Bible version of choice for the ABS is the
Contemporary English Version (CEV) which is just about as awful as any version I
have ever examined. Naturally, they sell the old RSV of the apostate National
Council of Churches and its new revision, the NRSV, especially in forms sporting
the so-called "Deutero-Canonicals," which is simply the 13 books of
the Apocrypha by another name. Yes, the ABS does sell some editions of
conservative versions (KJV, NASB, and perhaps others; I have purchased many
cases of a conservative Spanish version at very low prices from the ABS), but
these are not where its emphasis lies.
Prominent among the Bibles distributed by UBS members are the standard Orthodox
Bible translation in Romanian (this is a poor choice because, first, the OT is
based on the Septuagint Greek version, not the original Hebrew; second, it
contains the Apocrypha; and third, repeatedly in the NT it falsifies the word
for "elder" by translating it as "priest"; the standard
Protestant version by Cornilescu is very much superior). In the Czech Republic,
they have sponsored a revision of the archaic Reformation era version of
Kralicek, in itself not necessarily blameworthy. But this new version has
numerous notes that propagate destructive higher critical views of the OT (I
cannot speak from personal knowledge of the accuracy of this translation
itself). Whatever happened to 'the distribution of the Scriptures without note
or comment'? (I am convinced that there are far too many "study
Bibles" in print today, but that is another subject).
The ABS and its various UBS partners are also publishers of numerous scholarly
editions of the Bible in the original languages of Hebrew and Greek, and ancient
versions of the Bible in Syriac, Latin, Old Church Slavonic, etc., plus many
works on translation theory and practice (strongly favoring "dynamic"
or "functional " equivalence over formal equivalence), plus some
lexicons, works on textual criticism, helps for translators and such like. I
have acquired many such volumes from the ABS, but must object to the
often-exorbitant prices they charge--very much beyond the cost of production and
distribution (I have found identical volumes for sale in Romania at regularly
one-fifth the price, or less). Is this not contrary to the very spirit with
which the Bible societies were originally founded?
A Bible society that has come to the fore in the past three decades (though it
was founded much earlier) is the International Bible Society (IBS), originally
organized in 1809 as the New York Bible Society. It served as the sponsoring
organization for the New International Version (NIV), which has become the most
widely-sold of 20th century Bible versions. The society, now based in Colorado
Springs, has also sponsored NIV-like Bible revisions in Spanish, Romanian, and
probably other languages. They distribute at low prices conservative Bible
versions in several languages, though chiefly in English and Spanish. I have
purchased Bibles, Testaments and Gospels from them in these languages, always
with satisfactory results.
The Gideons were formed in 1899, with a view to the free distribution of the
Bible in public places. I suspect that everyone who has ever stayed in a hotel
or motel in America and most of Europe has seen a Gideon Bible in a bedside
drawer. Formerly, before an anti-God bias was imposed on public life in America
by the U. S. Supreme Court, the Gideons also distributed New Testaments free of
charge to school children in the public schools. I received one myself in the
5th grade, and used it for years until I read it apart in Bible college. Today,
the Gideons must stand out on the sidewalk to distribute their New Testaments to
school children. They also are actively distributing the Scriptures in the
former Soviet Bloc nations of Eastern Europe, among many other activities.
The Pocket Testament League was formed in 1916, with a goal for each member to
carry a NT with him everywhere and to read it regularly. Along with this
personal commitment to the Bible, there was an organized effort to distribute
the Bible to those who were without it, an effort that has extended itself to
numerous mission fields of the world.
Bearing Precious Seed is a Scripture printing ministry of First Baptist Church
of Milford, Ohio (just outside Cincinnati). They have printed Scriptures in
numerous languages, and freely distribute them around the world. I myself was
provided without cost (other than shipping) with thousands of Gospels of
John/Romans in Romanian for free distribution. I know they have done the same
with Serbian editions, and editions in other languages.
There are not a few other groups and organizations actively distributing the
Scriptures in print, on cassette, and on CD, some as a ministry, some for
profit.
As for supporting Bible societies directly, I could not with clear conscience
send a single nickel or a dime to any of the Bible societies which are dominated
by other than conservatives. In short, I refuse to support the ABS, BFBS or the
UBS with any financial gift. In contrast, supporting the IBS, the Gideons, the
Pocket Testament League, Bearing Precious Seed or others of similar stripe would
create no such crisis of conscience.
Well, if I would not give a gift to the ABS, why would I purchase Bibles from
them? Simply put: because at times, they provide the best price for a version
that is otherwise acceptable, and I look at buying from them as simply good
stewardship, getting the greatest number of Bibles or Testaments for the money
available.
In conclusion, let me reiterate that no true believer would object to the
professed design and purpose of the various Bible societies, but further, no
true believer would approve of the direction several old and famous Bible
societies have taken in recent days, particularly their ecumenism and
theological liberalism. Nevertheless, not a few such societies, some large, some
small, stand true to the original purpose. Let us all stand true to that
purpose. Let us be zealous to get the Bible into the hands of every individual.
Let us scatter this seed far and wide. And let us be quick about it.
---Doug Kutilek
--- References--
Armitage, Thomas, History of the
Baptists, Chapter XVII, "Bible Translation and Bible Societies," pp.
893-918.
Brown, Andrew J., The Word of God Among All Nations: A Brief History of the
Trinitarian Bible Society, 1831-1981.
Douglas, J. D., ed., New 20th-Century Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,
"Bibles Societies," pp. 76-7.
Jackson, Samuel A., The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge,
"Bible Societies," vol. II, pp. 88-93.
Kutilek, Douglas, The Text and Translation of the Bible: Nineteenth Century
American Baptist Views. Unpublished masters thesis. Plymouth, Minnesota: Central
Baptist Theological Seminary, 1997.
Loetscher, Lefferts A., ed., Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious
Knowledge, "Bible Societies," vol. I, p. 133.
McClintock, John, and Strong, James, edd., Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological,
and Ecclesiastical Literature, "Bible Societies," vol. I, pp. 803-808.
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"Use of the Bible by the Laity"
"The Word of God is intended
for the use of all classes of men. In the early ages of the Church its universal
perusal was not only allowed, but urged by bishops and pastors. It was not until
the general reading of the Bible was found to interfere with the claims of the
papacy that its 'perils for the common mind' were discovered.
As the use of Latin disappeared among the people, the Vulgate Bible became less
and less intelligible to them, and this fact was early welcomed as an aid to the
schemes of the Roman hierarchy. In the 11th century, Gregory VII thanks God for
it, as tending to save the people from misunderstanding the Bible. The reforming
and heretical sects (Cathari, Albigenses, Waldenses, etc.) of the 12th and 13th
centuries appealed to the Bible in all their disputes, thus furnishing the
hierarchy an additional reason for shutting up the Word of God.
In 1229, the Council of Toulouse, in its 14th canon, 'forbids the laity to have
in their possession any copy of the books of the Old and New Testament, except
the Psalter, and such portions of them as are contained in the Breviary, or the
Hours of the Virgin; and most strictly forbids these works in the vulgar
tongue.' The Council of Tarracone (1242) ordered all vernacular versions to be
brought to the bishop to be burnt. Similar prohibitions were issued from time to
time in the next two centuries by bishops and synods, especially in France and
Germany, though with little direct effect.
In the 'Ten Rules concerning Prohibited Books,' drawn up by order of the Council
of Trent, and approved by Pius IV, we find the following: In Rule III versions
of the O.T. may be 'allowed only to pious and learned men at the discretion of
the bishop;' in Rule IV it is stated that 'if the sacred books be permitted in
the vulgar tongue indiscriminately, more harm than utility arises therefrom by
reason of the temerity of men.' The bishop or inquisitor may grant permission to
safe persons to read them; all booksellers selling to unauthorized persons are
to be punished.
The Jansenist movement in the 17th century, and especially the publication of
Quesnel's N.T. in French (Paris, 1699) gave rise to a new stringency, to which
the bull Unigenitus was the organ. In the 18th century there was a reaction, and
the publication and reading of vernacular versions was even encouraged by the
better class of Roman bishops. The establishment of the Bible societies in the
beginning of the 19th century gave new alarm to the Roman hierarchy. Ordinances
or encyclicals forbidding the diffusion of Protestant Bibles were issued by Pius
VII (1816), Leo XII (1824), and Gregory XVI (1832).
Though the animus of these encyclicals is hostile to the free use of the Bible,
they yet do not prohibit it. At this day it is well understood, and admitted by
all intelligent Romanists themselves, that the laity are not only not required,
but are not expected to read the Word of God for themselves by the Roman
Church."
---McClintock-Strong, Cyclopedia, vol. I, p. 808.
[We are reminded of Luther's remark to the effect that the Roman Catholic Church
was opposed to the distribution of the Bible because the Bible was not on their
side--ed.]
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BOOK REVIEW
CHASING DIRT: THE AMERICAN PURSUIT OF CLEANLINESS by Suellen Hoy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. 258 pp, paperback, $13.95
I bought this book (at a deep
discount) as a Christmas present joke for my wife, who is well-known for her
fastidiousness as a house-keeper. So far, she hasn't read it, but I did on New
Year's Day, and discovered it to be a not-uninteresting historical study.
Americans have a reputation among Europeans of being obsessively pre-occupied
with matters of personal hygiene and cleanliness of house and surroundings, and
by way of comparison with many Europeans, that may well be true, but I
personally wish at least a few more Americans would join in on this
"obsession."
In this scholarly-serious volume, the author traces the rise of the American
emphasis on personal hygiene to its roots in the American Civil War era. As a
means of controlling and hopefully limiting the spread of diseases (such as
typhoid fever, cholera, diphtheria, whooping cough, pneumonia, and others) as
well as reducing the infection of wounds, efforts were made both in army
encampments and in army hospitals at insisting on proper sanitation and disposal
of human waste, prevention of contamination of water supplies, and securing of
clean clothes and bed linens for soldiers, as well as frequent bathing. And all
of these measures played an important part in reducing both battle and
non-battle casualties and fatalities among Federal troops in the American Civil
War (1861-1865). Cleanliness may or may not be "next to godliness" (a
quote attributed to John Wesley), but it certainly is effective at reducing the
spread of infectious diseases.
The lessons learned in the wartime experiences were thereafter applied to the
burgeoning cities across America in the latter part of the 19th century, and
city sanitation became a high public priority. Sewers were constructed, water
supplies were protected from contamination, garbage and animal waste was
systematically removed from city streets, alleys and empty lots. All of these
measures made American cities healthier places to live. And mechanical aids to
cleaning--powered washing machines, and later vacuum cleaners--allegedly gave
women (there are hints of a feminist perspective in the book) more time to focus
on cleanliness as the ultimate cottage industry.
As the 19th century gave way to the 20th, and city sanitation had done most of
what it could do to reduce or even eliminate the spread of numerous diseases,
the focus in America's love affair with soap and water turned more to the
esthetic side: namely, the desire to personally not commit a social, public faux
pas of offending others with foul body odor, bad breath, or
less-than-perfectly-clean clothes. Though the author sees this trend and focus
as having "peaked" in the 1950s, with Americans reportedly less
particular about such things today than in the recent past, I question this
conclusion; one has only to watch a day's worth of TV commercials and note just
how many--surely the great majority--are for products for household cleaning
(soaps, detergents, bleaches, etc.) or personal hygiene (soap, shampoo,
mouthwash, toothpaste, and such like).
Frankly, I'm all for cleanliness. I personally would like to thank Misters
Proctor, Gamble, Colgate, and Clean, as well as the Lever Brothers. Nice work,
gentleman.
---Doug Kutilek